HIV as a National Disaster Essay Sample free essay sample

AIDS has caused huge human agony in the continent. The most obvious consequence of this crisis has been illness and decease. but the impact of the epidemic has surely non been confined to the wellness sector ; families. schools. workplaces and economic systems have besides been severely affected. Although entree to antiretroviral intervention is get downing to decrease the toll of AIDS. fewer than half of Africans who need intervention are having it. The impact of AIDS will stay terrible for many old ages to come. The impact on the wellness sector In all to a great extent affected states the AIDS epidemic is adding extra force per unit area on the wellness sector. As the epidemic matures. the demand for attention for those populating with HIV rises. as does the toll of AIDS on wellness workers. The consequence on infirmaries As the HIV prevalence of a state rises. the strain placed on its infirmaries is likely to increase. We will write a custom essay sample on HIV as a National Disaster Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In sub-Saharan Africa. people with HIV-related diseases occupy more than half of all infirmary beds. Hospitals are fighting to get by. particularly in hapless African states where there are frequently excessively few beds available. This deficit consequences in people being admitted merely in the ulterior phases of unwellness. cut downing their opportunities of recovery. Health attention workers While AIDS is doing an increased demand for wellness services. big Numberss of health care professionals are being straight affected by the epidemic. Excessive work loads. hapless wage and migration to richer states are among the factors lending to this deficit. Although the recent addition in the proviso of antiretroviral drugs ( which significantly delay the patterned advance from HIV to AIDS ) has brought hope to many in Africa. it has besides put increased strain on health care workers. Supplying antiretroviral intervention to everyone who needs it requires more clip and preparation than is presently available in most states. The impact on families The toll of HIV and AIDS on families can be really terrible. Although no portion of the population is unaffected by HIV. it is frequently the poorest sectors of society that are most vulnerable to the epidemic and for whom the effects are most terrible. In many instances. the presence of AIDS causes the family to fade out. as parents die and kids are sent to relations for attention and upbringing. A survey in rural South Africa suggested that families in which an grownup had died from AIDS were four times more likely to fade out than those in which no deceases had occurred. Much happens before this disintegration takes topographic point: AIDS strips households of their assets and income earners. further impoverishing the hapless. Household income Persons who would otherwise supply a family with income are prevented from working – either because they are sick with AIDS themselves or because they are caring for another ill household member. Such a state of affairs is likely to hold reverberations for every member of the household. Children may be forced to abandon their instruction and in some instances adult females may be forced to turn to arouse work. This can take to a higher hazard of HIV transmittal. which farther exacerbates the state of affairs. Basic necessities A survey in South Africa found that hapless families get bying with members who are ill from HIV or AIDS were cut downing disbursement on necessities even further. The most likely disbursals to be cut were dressing ( 21 % ) . electricity ( 16 % ) and other services ( 9 % ) . Falling incomes forced about 6 % of families to cut down the sum they spent on nutrient and about half of families reported holding deficient nutrient at times. Food production The AIDS epidemic adds to nutrient insecurity in many countries. as agricultural work is neglected or abandoned due to household unwellness. In Malawi. where nutrient deficits have had a annihilating consequence. it has been recognised that HIV and AIDS have diminished the country’s agricultural end product. A survey in Kenya demonstrated that nutrient production in families in which the caput of the household died of AIDS were affected in different ways depending on the sex of the asleep. As in other sub-Saharan African states. it was by and large found that the decease of a male reduced the production of ‘cash crops’ ( such as java. tea and sugar ) . while the decease of a female reduced the production of grain and other harvests necessary for family endurance. Healthcare disbursals and funeral costs Taking attention of a individual ill with AIDS is non merely an emotional strain for family members. but besides a major strain on family resources. Loss of income. extra care-related disbursals. the decreased ability of health professionals to work. and mounting medical fees push affected families deeper into poorness. It is estimated that. on mean. HIV-related attention can absorb tierce of a household’s monthly income. The fiscal load of decease can besides be considerable. with some households in South Africa easy passing seven times their entire family monthly income on a funeral. Aside from the fiscal load. supplying place based attention can enforce demands on the physical. mental and general wellness of carers – normally household and friends of the ill individual. Such hazards are amplified if carers are untrained or unsupported by a home-based attention administration. The impact on kids It is difficult to overemphasize the injury and adversity that kids affected by HIV and AIDS are forced to bear. The epidemic non merely causes kids to lose their parents or defenders. but sometimes their childhood every bit good. As parents and household members become ill. kids take on more duty to gain an income. bring forth nutrient. and attention for household members. It is harder for these kids to entree equal nutrition. basic wellness attention. lodging and vesture. Because AIDS claims the lives of people at an age when most already have immature kids. more kids have been orphaned by AIDS in Africa than anyplace else. Many kids are now raised by their drawn-out households and some are even left on their ain in child-headed families. As projections of the figure of AIDS orphans rise. some have called for an addition in institutional attention for kids. However this solution is non merely expensive but besides damaging to the kids. Institutionalisation shops up jobs for society. which is sick equipped to get by with an inflow of immature grownups who have non been socialised in the community in which they have to populate. There are other options available. One illustration is the attack developed by church groups in Zimbabwe. in which community members are recruited to see orphans in their places. where they live either with surrogate parents. grandparents or other relations. or in child-headed families. The manner forward is bar. First. it is important to forestall kids from going infected with HIV at birth every bit good as later in life. Second. if attempts are made to forestall grownups going infected with HIV. and to care for those already infected. so fewer kids will be orphaned by AIDS in the hereafter. The impact on the instruction sector The relationship between AIDS and the instruction sector is round – as the epidemic worsens. the instruction sector is damaged. which in bend is likely to increase the incidence of HIV transmittal. There are legion ways in which AIDS can impact instruction. but every bit there are many ways in which instruction can assist the battle against AIDS. The extent to which schools and other instruction establishments are able to go on working will act upon how good societies finally retrieve from the epidemic. Without instruction. AIDS will go on its rampant spread. With AIDS out of control. instruction will be out of range. The impact on instructors HIV and AIDS are holding a annihilating consequence on the already unequal supply of instructors in African states ; for illustration. a survey in South Africa found that 21 % of instructors aged 25-34 were populating with HIV. Teachers who are affected by HIV and AIDS are likely to take periods of clip off work. Those with ill households may besides take clip off to go to funerals or to care for ill or deceasing relations. and farther absenteeism may ensue from the psychological effects of the epidemic. When a instructor falls ill. the category may be taken on by another instructor. may be combined with another category. or may be left unschooled. Even when there is a sufficient supply of instructors to replace losingss. there can be a important impact on the pupils. This is peculiarly refering given the of import function that instructors can play in the battle against AIDS. The unwellness or decease of instructors is particularly annihilating in rural countries where schools depen d to a great extent on one or two instructors. Furthermore. skilled instructors are non easy replaced. The greatest proportion of staff that have been lost. harmonizing to the Tanzania Teacher’s Union. were experient staff between the ages of 41 and 50. The impact on endeavors and workplaces HIV and AIDS dramatically affect labor. puting back economic and societal advancement. The huge bulk of people populating with HIV in Africa are between the ages of 15 and 49 – in the prime of their working lives. AIDS amendss concerns by squashing productiveness. adding costs. deviating productive resources. and consuming accomplishments. Company costs for health-care. funeral benefits and pension fund committednesss are likely to lift as the figure of people taking early retirement or death additions. Besides. as the impact of the epidemic on families grows more terrible. market demand for merchandises and services can fall. The epidemic hits productiveness through increased absenteeism. Comparative surveies of East African concerns have shown that absenteeism can account for every bit much as 25-54 % of company costs. A survey in several Southern African states has estimated that the combined impact of AIDS-related absenteeism. productiveness diminutions. health-care outgos . and enlisting and preparation disbursals could cut net incomes by at least 6-8 % . Another survey of a 1000 companies in Southern Africa found that 9 % had suffered a important negative impact due to AIDS. In countries that have been hit hardest by the epidemic. it found that up to 40 % of companies reported that HIV and AIDS were holding a negative consequence on net incomes. Some companies. though. have implemented successful programmes to cover with the epidemic. An illustration is the gold-mining industry in South Africa. The gilded mines attract 1000s of workers. frequently from hapless and distant parts. Most unrecorded in inns. separated from their households. As a consequence a booming sex industry operates around many mines and HIV is common. In recent old ages. excavation companies have been working with a figure of administrations to implement bar programmes for the mineworkers. These have included mass distribution of rubbers. medical attention and intervention for sexually transmitted diseases. and awareness runs. Some excavation companies have started to replace all-male inns with adjustment for households. in order to cut down the transmittal of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. In Swaziland. an employers’ anti-AIDS alliance has been set up to advance voluntary guidance and testing. The alliance non merely includes larger companies but besides little and average sized endeavors. In Botswana. the Debswana diamond company offers all employees HIV proving. and provides antiretroviral drugs to HIV positive workers and their partners. This policy was introduced in 1999 when the company found that many of their work force were HIV positive. With a skilled work force. it is financially deserving their while to protect the wellness and hence the productiveness of their workers. Nevertheless. workplace programmes for HIV intervention and bar remain scarce in Africa. The impact on life anticipation The impact that AIDS has had on mean life anticipation is partially attributed to child mortality. as increasing Numberss of babes are born with HIV infections acquired from their female parents. The biggest addition in deceases. nevertheless. has been among grownups aged between 20 and 49 old ages. This group now accounts for 60 % of all deceases in sub-Saharan Africa. compared to 20 % between 1985 and 1990. when the epidemic was in its early phases By impacting this age group so to a great extent. AIDS is hitting grownups in their most economically productive old ages and taking the really people who could be reacting to the crisis. The economic impact Through its impacts on the labour force. families and endeavors. AIDS has played a important function in the reversal of human development in Africa. One facet of this development reversal has been the harm that the epidemic has done to the economic system. which. in bend. has made it more hard for states to react to the crisis. One manner in which AIDS affects the economic system is by cut downing the labor supply through increased mortality and unwellness. Amongst those who are able to work. productiveness is likely to worsen as a consequence of HIV-related unwellness. Government income besides declines. as revenue enhancement grosss autumn and authoritiess are pressured to increase their disbursement to cover with the spread outing HIV epidemic. The abilities of African states to diversify their industrial base. spread out exports and pull foreign investing are built-in to economic advancement in the part. By doing labour more expensive and cut downing net incomes. AIDS limits the ability of African states to pull industries that depend on low-priced labor and makes investings in African concerns less desirable. The impact that AIDS has had on the economic systems of African states is hard to mensurate. The economic systems of the worst affected states were already fighting with development challenges. debt and worsening trade before the epidemic started to impact the continent. AIDS has combined with these factors to farther worsen the state of affairs. It is thought that the impact of AIDS on the gross domestic merchandise ( GDP ) of the worst affected states is a loss of around 1. 5 % per twelvemonth ; this means that after 25 old ages the economic system would be 31 % smaller than it would otherwise hold been. The future impact of HIV/AIDS As entree to intervention is easy expanded throughout the continent. 1000000s of lives are being extended and hope is being given to people who antecedently had none. Unfortunately though. the bulk of people in demand of intervention are still non having it. and runs to forestall new infections ( which must stay the cardinal focal point of the battle against AIDS ) are missing in many countries. The impact of AIDS in Africa is linked to many other jobs. such as poorness and hapless public substructures. Attempts to contend the epidemic must take these worlds into history. and look at ways in which the general development of Africa can come on. As the grounds discussed in this page makes clear. nevertheless. AIDS is moving a serious barrier to Africa’s development. Much wider entree to HIV bar. intervention and attention services is desperately needed.

Martin Luther King Jr. Vs Malcolm X Essays - Community Organizing

Martin Luther King Jr. Vs Malcolm X Essays - Community Organizing Martin Luther King Jr. Vs Malcolm X Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X grew up in different environments. King was raised in a comfortable middle-class family where education was stressed. On the other hand, Malcolm X came from and underprivileged home. He was a self-taught man who received little schooling and rose to greatness on his own intelligence and determination. Martin Luther King was born into a family whose name in Atlanta was well established. Despite segregation, Martin Luther Kings parents ensured that their child was secure and happy. Malcolm X was born on May 19, 1925 and was raised in a completely different atmosphere than King, an atmosphere of fear and anger where the seeds of bitterness were planted. The burning of his house by the Klu Klux Klan resulted in the murder of his father. His mother later suffered a nervous breakdown and his family was split up. He was haunted by this early nightmare for most of his life. From then on, he was driven by hatred and a desire for revenge. The early backgrounds of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King were largely responsible for the distinct different responses to American racism. Both men ultimately became towering icons of contemporary African-American culture and had a great influence on black Americans. However, King had a more positive attitude than Malcolm X, believing that through peaceful demonstrations and arguments, blacks will be able to someday achieve full equality with whites. Malcolm Xs despair about life was reflected in his angry, pessimistic belief that equality is impossible because whites have no moral conscience. King basically adopted on an integrationalist philosophy, whereby he felt that blacks and whites should be united and live together in peace. Malcolm X, however, promoted nationalist and separatist doctrines. For most of his life, he believed that only through revolution and force could blacks attain their rightful place in society. Both X and King spread their message through powerful, hard-hitting speeches. Nevertheless, their intentions were delivered in different styles and purposes. King was basically a peaceful leader who urged non-violence to his followers. He travelled about the country giving speeches that inspired black and white listeners to work together for racial harmony. (pg. 135, Martin Luther King Jr. and the Freedom Movement) Malcolm X, for the most part, believed that non-violence and integration was a trick by the whites to keep blacks in their places. He was furious at white racism and encouraged his followers through his speeches to rise up and protest against their white enemies. After Malcolm X broke away from Elijah Mohammed, this change is reflected in his more moderate speeches. Malcolm X and Martin Luther Kings childhoods had powerful influences on the men and their speeches. Malcolm X was brought up in an atmosphere of violence. During his childhood, Malcolm X suffered not only from abuse by whites, but also from domestic violence. His father beat his mother and both of them abused their children. His mother was forced to raise eight children during the depression. After his mother had a mental breakdown, the children were all placed in foster homes. Malcolm Xs resentment was increased as he suffered through the ravages of integrated schooling. Although an intelligent student who shared the dream of being a lawyer with Martin Luther King, Malcolm Xs anger and disillusionment caused him to drop out of school. He started to use cocaine and set up a burglary ring to support his expensive habit. Malcolm Xs hostility and promotion of violence as a way of getting change was well established in his childhood. Martin Luther King lived in an entirely different environment. He was a smart student and skipped two grades before entering an ivy league college at only the age of 15. He was the class valedictorian with an A average. King paraded his graduation present in a new green Chevrolet before his fellow graduates. He was raised in the perfect environment where dreams and love were generated. King and Xs childhoods are a study in polarity. (pg. 254, Reflecting Black) Whereas, Malcolm X was raised in nightmarish conditions. Kings home was almost dream-like. He was raised in a comfortable middle-class home where

Indonesia - Suharto politics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Indonesia - Suharto politics - Research Paper Example 3). This started in central Java when he involved himself in many enterprises that were very profitable thus helping in the funding of the poor military forces. This business with Islamic therefore strengthened his relationship with the Muslims thus making it easier for him to from alliances with them. Indonesia is also highly populated by Muslims who were looking for ways of making Indonesia a Muslim republic. Reasons Why Indonesians Mainly Opposed Communists Communism was strongly opposed by Indonesians because a military propaganda convinced international and Indonesian audiences that an abortive coup scheduled for September 30th, 1969 was coup organized by the communists. It was also reported that the murders and atrocities committed against many Indonesians were targeted at Indonesian heroes. The army led a campaign to destroy Indonesian society and communist party. In some parts of the country, the army organized religious, militia and civilian groups where communist vigilantes defeated the army, killing approximately half a million people. Consequently, Indonesian Communist Party was eliminated by political Islam and the military. Key Experiences that Shaped Suharto’s Politics Suharto had served in key military positions during the reign of Sukarno. On February 1966, he was appointed lieutenant General by the president. On the other hand, the March 1966 Supers mar decree transformed most of Sukarno’s power to Suharto giving him permission to do whatever he found necessary in order to restore peace ( Elson, 2001, p. 8). Elson further assesses that he also served in the Indonesian security forces that wee against Japanese here, he rose become the Major General when Indonesia gained independence. This gave him enough experience that shaped his political life. New Order Implemented under Suharto The new order implemented under Suharto was the building of a very powerful institution in the presidency of Indonesia. Therefore, Suharto isolated his rivals from the ruling elite and army and rewarded his loyalties with patronage. The new order aimed at achieving economic development, political order, and ending mass participation in political processes. The new order was featured in a weak society, corporatization and bureaucratization of societal and political organizations, with effective and selective opponents’ repression. Suharto’s order ensured a government that was authoritarian and military dominated. The order established two intelligence agencies; State Intelligence Coordination Agency and Operational Command for the Restoration of Security and Order for maintenance of domestic order. Position of Islamist Parties Muslim parties’ position was justice, democracy and gender equality. They encouraged female activists. These parties were more democratic and moderate than the other political parties. They radically criticized the position of Americans towards Muslims through peaceful demonstrations. The y also sought to recover the Muslim identity both in the social and political arenas. State of Economy Inherited by Suharto and his Key Reforms Suharto inherited a nearly-collapsed economy from Surkano due to social breakdown and political conflicts during Surkano’s reign (Miller, 2008, p. 5). However, Suharto revived the economy by controlling the 1965-68 hyper-inflation. Miller (2008,

Aquaculture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Aquaculture - Essay Example In recent years, cultivated aqua plants have shown significant increase in production too. The gross production of aqua plants in 2004 was worth 6.8 billion US$. Oysters hold the second position when it comes to aquatic culture. The aquatic species variegation is another factor that demands attention. More than 240 cultivated aquatic flora and animal species were recorded in 2004. The fact that needs exposure here is that heterogeneity of aquatic species has been undermined and collection of annual facts and data suggest that species variegation is shooting up. Species introduction is one of the legitimate means of increasing production. Species Introduction has played a significant role in aquaculture and they provide a noticeable share of total aquaculture production. Consider the fact that nearly 17% of the global finfish production is because of alien/introduced species. However they have negative impacts too. Introduced species can impact aquatic ecosystem in terms of predation, habitat modification etc. Proper assessment of effects of introduced species on aquatic life and their negative and positive consequences should be done and suitable plans should be formulated. Fishery products comprises of water, proteins, lipids, minerals, vitamins and other nitrogen compounds. The vital micro-nutrients and minerals in fatty fish are Vitamins A and D, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus whereas iodine, in marine fish. Fish lipids have up to 40% extremely unsaturated long chain fatty acids. Fish proteins hold all vital amino acids. The carbohydrate content in fish muscle is very less, generally lesser than 0.5 percent. There are numerous uses of marine resources; the most prominent use is as a source of food. Fisheries resources are rendering human species with record amounts of food. Fish has proved to be a diet full of proteins and nutrients. World fish production used for direct human intake shot up during 1990s. Other use of fish include 'extracting oil' and as 'feed'. However, excessive use of fisheries resources is endangering the ecosystem of our planet. Continuously increasing demand and exhausting marine life has led to an increment in the gap between demand and supply. As Taras Grescoe states in Bottomfeeder: How the fish on our Plates is Killing our Planet that Good fish like sardine, pilchard is diminishing and that we in our madness are hoovering up the good fish by converting it into fishmeal for salmon in farms. He concludes that it requires 3.9 Kg of wild fish to yield 1 Kg of flabby, artificially colored farmed salmon. Commercial wild salmon fishery has nearly vanished in North At lantic. The North Sea store of herring, valuable fatty pelagic fish, tumbled in 1970s because of the requirement of the pig feed industry. It can be concluded that overfishing is a compelling marine issue demanding immediate attention. According to EUCC news, China is a country where live reef fish requirement is quite high and is expected to increase in the coming years. Hong-Kong being the capital of world's live reef fish industry exports a lot of reef fish to China. China's increasing demands for coral fish has already endangered species like hump head wrasse. As marine stock has already depleted in

Positive reinforcement within the classroom

Positive reinforcement within the classroom Positive reinforcement within the classroom. Classroom management and discipline is the most challenging aspect of teaching (Yost Mosa, 2002). Aksoy (2003) describes classroom environment as; multifaceted, simultaneous, fast occurring, and unpredictable. This environment means that at any time, teachers have to attend to a vast range of pupil needs fairly and consistently. (Edwards 2003). It is therefore important teachers implement and refine strategies focusing on reducing behavioural issues in order to maximise potential for learning and ensure smooth classroom practise. Due to the increased diversity of pupils in schools teachers now encounter a much wider range of behavioural difficulties in an average class, this is partly as a result of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Quinn et al., 2001). Interestingly the most common request for assistance from teachers relates to behaviour and classroom management (Rose Gallup 2005). Disruptions in class take up student’s valuable learning time and decreases potential learning opportunities of the class. (Witzel Mercer Miller 2003, Cains Brown, 1996) Teachers who regularly encounter problematic behaviour often report increased amounts of stress and frustration (Browers Tomic, 2000). This in some circumstances can make teachers question their capability for their role (witzel, Miller and Mercer 2003). The importance of classroom management in reinforced by Shinn, Ramsey, Walker, Stieber, Oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸Neill (1987) who found classrooms frequently experiencing behavioural disruptions had less time engaging in learning, and pupils tended to leave school with lower grades compared to peers. Within the literature it is clear that there is a wide spectrum of strategies implemented by teachers to increase effectiveness of behaviour management strategies. Some educators argue strong discipline and setting limits are most effective, others assume creating an exciting curriculum works best. All strategies highlight the importance on how to behave, pupil responsibilities and adhering to class and social norms. It is also clear that many of the strategies identified have a basis embedded in psychological principle. These include behavioural, psychodynamic, biological and developmental approaches. It has often been disputed how best to apply psychological theory to classroom practice. This review will focus on the use of positive reinforcement in classroom management. Theories will be discussed, evaluated and related to classroom practice. What defines Positive reinforcement? Positive reinforcement refers to the implementation of positive stimuli to desirable behaviour. Described by Skinner (1938) as operant conditioning, it is used to increase the probability of desired behaviour occurring again (Fontana 1994). It is most effective if implemented immediately after desired behaviour occurs and often used as a behaviour management strategy. It can be applied through social cues (a simple smile), positive feedback and reward/sanction systems and best used alongside a classroom context (rules and routines). Theoretical basis of positive reinforcement Behavioural theories have been highly influential to positive reinforcement in the classroom, although they have not always been highly regarded by the educational community (Axelrod 1997). Nevertheless the use of positive reinforcement appears frequently within literature regarding behaviour management. It is important to identify principles underlying positive reinforcement and the criticisms to these theories. Also how these core behavioural principles can be converted to classroom practise and the issues surrounding implementing techniques. The first major contribution to positive reinforcement was Edward Thorndike’s â€Å"Law effect† (1911) which implies behaviour that generates positive effects on the environment are more likely to be continued (Miltenburger, 2008). This implied reinforcement and praise play fundamental role in shaping behaviour. Shortly after this Watson (1913) describes â€Å"Behaviourism†. He bases his theory on the understanding that behaviour is learned and therefore can be unlearned. Behavioural changes are therefore due to environmental circumstances (Miltenberger 2008). Ivan Pavlov (1927) describes â€Å"Classical conditioning†, in which a stimulus is linked to a naturally occurring response that occurs with a different stimulus to evoke an unnatural response. This manifests in a classroom scenario such as using a â€Å"finger click† to attract attention. It is a strategy used to consistently hint students to stop working. This example explains a â€Å"conditioned† behaviour in which pupils have been taught to behave in a specific manor to an unrelated cue. Much of his work at the time was conducted on animals within Laboratories. B.F. Skinner’s research has been significant in the development of positive reinforcement (Labrador 2004). He argued that positive reinforcement was more effective than punishment when trying to modify behaviour. Through his study he identifies â€Å"operant conditioning† which explains how reinforcement and punishment play a key role in the recurrence of behaviour. He explains how behaviour that is consistently reinforced with praise/ rewards will occur more often. He identifies five obstacles that inhibit children’s ability to learn. These included fear of failure, complication of task, clarity, direction and lack of reinforcement (Frisoli 2008). Additionally he recognises techniques such as breaking tasks down, repeating directions and giving positive reinforcement (Frisoli 2008). Classroom research that followed was based on his findings. Studies focused on adult’s childrearing (Baumrind, 1971) and children in a Laboratory setting (Kenney Willicut, 1964; Soloman, 1964). Most studies found reward to be more effective at managing and influencing behaviour. Bandura (1965) explains these findings as a product of children’s previous conditioned responses to reward and punishment, influencing its success in class. The Importance of Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement refers to any event that follows a behaviour used to increase the chances of the behaviour reoccurring. It can also be used to motivate students. (Domjam 2003). Bracey (1994) states; 15 years of research have confirmed that reinforcing behaviour can increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be performed under subsequent non-rewarded conditions. Similarly Miltenberger (2008) states â€Å"disruptive behaviours can be controlled or eliminated with behavioural intervention† (p11). Due to this considerable research has been conducted into the application of positive reinforcement in schools. It is used to further teaching methods, control inappropriate behaviours and improve social and functional skills (Miltenberger, 2008). Positive reinforcement techniques have however been perceived to threaten individual’s freedoms (maag 2001). Society perceives reinforcement as externally applied to an individual with the aim of coercing behaviour and leading them to become dependable on extrinsic reinforcement (maag 2001). Although an understandable concern, Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett (2004) describe these concerns as unwarranted. Studies have found positive reinforcement to increase intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Banko, Pierce, 2001), especially rewards based on meeting a performance objective (Eisenberger, Pierce, Cameron 1999). Conroy et al (2009) describes how ‘teacher reactions’ play a significant role in influencing students behaviour, pupils will try to gain attention through predictable behaviour linked to common teacher reactions. For example, a teacher who focuses attention solely on disruptive behaviour will cause children to behave in a disruptive manor in order to gain the teachers attention. Teachers should use positive attention within feedback to influence desired behaviour (Conroy et al 2009). Chityo Wheeler (2009) highlight the importance of using positive reinforcement with pupils that show signs of behavioural difficulties. Due to the nature of their difficulties and the disruptive effect on the class it is imperative to positively reinforce desired behaviour for these students (Chityo Wheeler 2009). Positive reinforcement in the classroom. Consequences Positive reinforcement influences desired behaviour, ignoring undesired behaviour decreases the chance of it reoccurring (Conroy et al, 2009). Rules and routines are used to prevent unsuitable behaviour. They establish behavioural context for the classroom and instruct pupils on expected behaviour and the consequences if inappropriate behaviour continues (Colvin et al., 1993). This method of instructing behavioural expectations is used in nearly every school and vital to creating a productive learning environment. Chitiyo Wheeler (2009) expand on this by explaining how appropriate behaviour can be established through modelling desired behaviour and by building naturally occurring reinforcement within the classroom environment. This involves managing inappropriate behaviour through consequences (Mather Goldstien, 2001). Rules and routines play a significant role in determining a context for consequences to be applied throughout the classroom. Consequences play a fundamental role in managing classroom behaviour and creative a positive learning environment. These are highly valuable tools used to encourage learning and prevent problem behaviour (Conroy, Sutherland, snyder, al- Hendawai and Vo 2009). Consequences should be used to further learning and stop disruptive behaviour occurring (mather Goldstien 2001). Mather and Goldstien (2001) describe a consequence approach to managing behaviour. This involves defining the problem, developing a behaviour plan, identifying an effective reinforcement and constantly reinforcing desired behaviour. Reinforcement should occur soon after the desired behaviour occurs and used to teach appropriate behaviour, social and communication skills (Mather Goldstien 2001). Teachers must select consequences that are relevant and strengthen behaviour. Bushell (1973) refers to irrelevant consequences as neutral consequences that do not affect behaviour. It is important for teachers to evaluate use of reinforcements to make sure consequences are positively reinforcing behaviour of all individuals (Bushell 1973). Positive feedback Social reinforcement is significant to all children’s development and very common within the classroom. Social cues including walking around the class, smiling, complimenting or commenting are vital in increasing and maintaining positive behaviours. These can be implemented verbally; â€Å"I like the way your group is working!†, Written; â€Å"Great!† or through expressions such as clapping or nodding. Skinner (1953) suggests that pupils need significant amounts of social reinforcement and positive attention in the first few years of school. He argues it establishes several generalised social enforcers including; attention, approval, affection and submissiveness. It also promotes confidence and responsibility within children. Convoy (2009) found praise can improve the whole class environment. Effective praise increases positive behaviours and interactions with pupils and teachers. (Convoy et al 2009) Infantino Little (2005) describe a range of important principles governing praise; Praise should be initiated by the teacher, dependent upon desired behaviour, focusing on improvement, age appropriate and structured around individual needs. These different principles describe a wide range of factors that together determine the effectiveness of praise. Despite this huge range of significant factors Smith Rivera (1993) show how praise is most effective overall, applied to specific behaviour. In the literature behaviour specific praise has been linked to positive outcomes for students and a decrease in negative behaviour. (Thomas, Becker Madsen 1968, Ramsey, Walker Gresham 2004) Most importantly praise has been shown to increase student motivation (O’Leary Becker 1969) and have positive effects on tea ching reading and math’s (Gable Shores 1980). Morrison and Jones (2007) addressed the topic of Positive Peer Reporting. This positive action of saying positive things about pupils peers reduced tension, negative feelings and encouraged positivity throughout the class. An example of this in class is ‘star of the week’ or ‘show and tell time’. This shows how praise is not just teacher orientated, but in fact can be applied throughout the class in a variety of different ways. This can help promote more learning within the class, specifically areas of development etc social skills/ personality. Despite this the effectiveness of praise in diverse classrooms is questionable due to individual differences and prior experiences of praise (Lam, Yim and Ng 2008). Infantino Little (2005) noted student’s preferred to receive praise for good work privately, as they prefer not to be singled out. This may infer that in school there are underlying cultural perceptions within children that performing well is a bad thing or something to be ashamed of. Teachers can combat this by using group praise/rewards or by offering a range of rewards to individualize rewards and increase motivation. Praise is a good example of a commonly used environmental event used to reinforce student’s behavior (Brophy, 1981). Important studies suggest teachers do not praise good behavior as much as they could (Wehby, Symons, canale go 1998). Rewards systems Schools have used external rewards to manage behavior for many decades. The use of rewards for good behavior is directly related to academic and social success (Slavin 1997). On the contrary some evidence suggests that expectations of rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation (Holt 1983, Deci, Koestner, Ryan 1999). A reward is defined as; the offering of an environmental event in exchange for participation or achievement (Craighead, Kazdin Mahoney, 1981). To successfully shape problematic behavior students must comprehend and accept rewards used to reinforce behavior. Pupil’s perception of a ‘good’ reward has been shown to change with age (Shreeve, Boddington, Bernard, Brown, Clarke Dean, Elkins, Kemp, Lees, Miller, Oakley, Shiret 2000). This can have a major impact on the effectiveness of using reward systems. To combat this issue, Infantino Little (2005) state rewards should be â€Å"mutually agreed by students and teachers, realistic and deliverable†. Rewards can help define behavioral expectations, recognize positive behavior and provide a safe, consistent school environment (Shreeve et al 2002). This provides students with a sense of community and self belonging which increases opportunities for learning (Zimmerman 1989). Rewards are significant in helping motivate children with reading, Math’s and social skills (Reiss, 2005). Research suggests reward systems are effective at improving behavior (Clifton Cook, 2012). A wide range of factors contribute to the overall effectiveness of using classroom rewards. These include; perceived fairness, providing choices of reward, establishing a sense of community and individualizing reward systems. It is important that teachers evaluate their strategy to make sure these factors influence how reward strategies are implemented through school. Barriers to application of positive reinforcement. While implementing positive reinforcement within the classroom teachers face several barriers. Briesch and Chafouleas (2009) identifies that a lack of time and resources means teachers are unable to reinforce all desired behaviour within the class. Also there is a danger that the teacher becomes an unconditioned stimuli resulting in children only acting in specific ways in teacher presence (Briesch and Chafouleas 2009). Reinke, Lewis-Palmer Merrell (2008) describe ‘Locus of control’ being taken away from children when using excessive positive reinforcement, this resulting in a loss of intrinsic motivation. It is therefore crucial that teachers evaluate how productive their strategies are in their specific class. Another major issue within the literature is that when a child is rewarded for completion of a task many times, they tend to lose interest in the actual task and focus more on gaining the reward at the end. (Kohn 1993) this can seriously impact the learning environment and have adverse individualised effects on their attention processing systems (Hidi 1990). Also noted within literature is that teachers can easily make bad use of reinforcement and as a consequence, unintentionally reinforce negative behaviour. For example; sending a student outside for bad behaviour removes the child from the unwanted stimuli (work) and reinforces their behaviour because they have achieved their goal (not having to work). This means the underlying behaviour will most likely be repeated (Maag 2001). Another important fact to consider is that due to the culture of schools, and behaviour deemed appropriate, therefore reinforced, all children are being taught (reinforced) the same information decided by the small group of individuals who write the national curriculum. This does not promote individual learning and must surely have detrimental effects on the diversity and individualisation amongst the general population. Conclusion The use of positive reinforcement is based on a strong amount of literature that suggests behaviour is reinforced by contingent rewards. Most noticeable within laboratory experiments based on animals and food, positive reinforcement has become widely accepted as a behavioural modification strategy/tool. Due to the increasing range of pupil’s abilities in the average classroom teachers have to incorporate and build upon strategies that successfully promote progression with the vast majority of abilities encountered. In a class setting, strong rules and routines provide instructions to pupils that are used to direct behaviour. Verbal prompting of these rules can drastically increase the effectiveness of reinforcement. Consequences, rewards and positive feedback are used as an effective motivation tool and can supply incentives for behaving in specific ways, effectively influencing a wide range of decisions in the classroom. Praise is highly regarded by individuals and important to development of the self and social awareness. It has the ability to motivate students and build self confidence. To use reinforcement effectively through rewards, pupils must not become motivated solely by the reward, losing their intrinsic motivation can have adverse effects on individual motivation. To combat this reinforcement must be individualised for each child and teachers should incorporate a wide variety of reinforcement strategies into their classroom management strategy. It is important to note that how teachers apply positive can ultimately decide its effectiveness within the class. Strategies should be refined and built upon as children within the class develop or the teacher is at risk of reducing the effec tiveness of reinforcement and sometimes impacting negatively of their education. Positive reinforcement plays a fundamental role in creating a positive learning environment for all pupils. It is important it is used correctly and this involves reinforcing desired behaviour, not disruptive behaviour. Therefore it is important I use positive reinforcement in my own teaching by utilizing rewards, praise and sanctions to build a safe environment centred to learning. I will incorporate different reinforcement strategies into my teaching. The use of peer group feedback and praise is easily applied to pupil’s self assessment of the lesson and can help build social relations within the class environment to further learning. Word 2843

Drama Monologue Velocity vs. Viscosity :: Drama

Drama Monologue Velocity vs. Viscosity Insanity comes in two basic varieties: slow and fast. I'm not talking about onset or duration. I mean the quality of the insanity. The day to day business of being a head case. There are lots of names I guess: depression, catatonia, mania, anxiety, agitation. They don't really tell you much though do they? The predominant quality of the slow form in viscosity. Experience is thick. Perceptions are thickened and dulled. Time is slow, dripping slowly through the clogged filter of thickened perception. The body temperature is low. The pulse is sluggish. The immune system is half asleep. The organism is torpid and brackish. Even the reflexes are diminished, as if the lower leg couldn't be bothered to jerk itself out of stupor when the knee is tapped. Viscosity occurs on a cellular level. And so does velocity. In contrast to viscosity's cellular coma, velocity endows every platelet and muscle fibre with a mind of its own, a means of knowing and commenting on its own behaviour. There is too much perception, and beyond the plethora of perceptions, the plethora of thoughts about the perceptions and about the fact of having perceptions. Digestion could kill you! What I mean is the unceasing awareness of the processes of digestion could exhaust you to death. And digestion is just an involuntary sideline to thinking, which is where the real trouble begins. Take a thought - anything. I doesn't matter. For example - I'm tired of sitting here in front of the nurses station. I perfectly reasonable thought. Here's what velocity does to it. First break down the sentence. 'I'm tired' - well, are you really tired, exactly? Is that, like, sleepy? You have to check all body parts for sleepiness, and while you're doing that , there's a bombardment of images of sleepiness along these lines: head falling onto pillow, head hitting pillow, Wynken, Blynken and Nod, Little Nemo rubbing sleep from his eyes, a sea monster. Uh-oh, a sea monster. If you're lucky you can avoid the sea monster and stick with sleepiness. Back to the pillow, memories of having mumps aged five, sensation of swollen cheeks on pillows and pain of salivation - stop. Go back to sleepiness. But the salivation notion is too alluring, and now there's an excursion into the mouth. You've been here before and it's bad. It's the tongue: once you think of the tongue it becomes an intrusion. Why is the tongue so large? Why is it so scratchy on the sides? Is that a vitamin deficiency? Could you remove the tongue? Would your mouth be less of a bitch without it?

Mud crab

I. Problem/QuestionThere is currently an increasing commercial viability of mud crabs especially in subtropical countries. However, due to seasonal factors affecting the spawning of these species, there a need to develop methods for â€Å"year-around larval production† (Zeng, 2007, p. 1478-1479) arises. There are no current techniques that would enable this process. Therefore, this study investigated on the feasibility of out-of-season mud crab spawning induction. It also determined whether in vitro incubation of eggs is possible.   An evaluation of the temperature effects on the rates of embryonic development of mud crabs was also conducted. This is in order to provide predicted dates of hatching for berried mud crab females (Zeng, 2007, p. 1478-1479). II. Experimental procedures/MethodThe researchers kept female individuals of S. paramamosain in 1000L tanks. These holding tanks contained seawater, filtered with sand, with constant salinity of 29-32 g/L but with uncontrolle d temperature between 10-30  °C.   In order to determine the â€Å"proximate maturation index (PMI)† (Zeng, 2007, p. 1479), crab ovarian development was regularly checked every fortnight using a calliper to measure the width of the strip of light in the carapace when shone with bright light from underneath (Zeng, 2007, p. 1479).The induction experiment was started with the random selection of mature subjects with